Ulitzka, Bianca

Delay of gratification tasks have an impressive predictive value for various outcomes and are designed to measure self‐regulation. Since many behavioural and psychological conditions in children are related to limitations in self‐regulation, the extent to which delay tasks can be used as a screening for the detection of psychopathology is examined. Children from the general population (non‐clinical sample; N = 1498; 51% girls) participated in delay tasks at the ages of 3 and 5. Parents rated ADHD and conduct problems when children were age 5 and 6, which we classified using cut‐offs. Delay at age 3 was related to ADHD at age 5 (OR = 1.84) and conduct at age 6 (OR = 2.61). The results showed high specificity (77%–78%) and high negative predictive values (95%–98%), correctly identifying children below the SDQ cut‐off, but low sensitivity (27%–42%), making the task unsuitable as a screening tool for children with an increased likelihood of developing psychopathology. These results were aggravated when only the first 20 s were considered, showing better specificity but worse sensitivity values.

Theoretical background The ability of self regulation develops significantly during preschool age (Zelazo et al., 2018). Skills such as the ability to wait and switch between different tasks are categorised as executive functions (Miyake, 2000; Roebers, 2017). Preschool children with well developed executive functions have more favourable individual prerequisites for school readiness (Bierman et al., 2008), academic learning success Becker et al., 2014 and better mental health (Fergusson et al., 2013; Moffitt et al. 2011). However, a comprehensive assessment of executive functions in children of preschool age is not yet possible due to the lack of a test battery for measuring executive functions in German speaking countries (Ulitzka, 2022). Research question This study aimed to evaluate and standardize the computerized test battery, EF Touch (Willoughby & Blair, 2015), a test battery to measure executive function s, for German speaking preschool children. Method Data collection for the representative sample of 442 children (215 girls; 220 boys; mean age = 4.10 years, SD = 0.87 ) aged between 3;0 and 5;11 years was completed in April 2023. The children completed eight EF Touch tasks on a touchscreen over two testing sessions, alongside additional validation tasks. Parents assessed their children's executive functions and psychopa thological symptoms using questionnaires. Results and their significance The findings from the construction sample (n = 90) have already been published (Ulitzka et al., 2023). Almost all EF Touch tasks demonstrated acceptable to very good internal consistencies ( α = .6 20-.925, n = 336-442 ) and significant inter correlations ( r = .192-.90 4 , n = 270-430 ). Older children performed better across all tasks. No gender effects were found in the results of the tasks, only in the shifting task girls perform ed better than boys Additionally, convergent validity was supported by significant correlation with parental assessments of executive functions as measured by the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function Preschool Version r = -.212 ****, n = 415-422 ; BRIEF P , Daseking & Petermann, 2013) and another behavioural measure of executive function the Head-Toes-Knees-Shoulders task (r = .448**, n = 97 ; HTKS ; McClelland et al., 2014; Ponitz et al., 2008) 2008). Furthermore, calculations of the convergent validity showed significant correlations with a range of symptoms of psychopathology assessed with the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (r = -.300** to -.126 ****, n = 406 ; SDQ ; Goodman, 1997 as well as with performance (raw scores in the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence - Fourth Edition (General IQ: r = .523** .523**, n = 295 ; Vocabulary Inquisition: r = .494**, n = 295; WPPSI IV; Wechsler, 2018 )). Children that did wait and did not wait in a gift task differed in their executive functions (n = 28, U = 138, p = .021) but children that wait and did not wait in a Marshmallow task did not (n = 28, U = 121, p = .294). All correlations were controlled for the age of the children. These results from the evaluation of the test battery's quality criteria indicate that the instrument is suitable for measuring executive functions in preschool aged children in German speaking regions. Assessing executive functions before school entry could facilitate the promotion and thus the improvement of these skills, as well as potentially allow for the postponement of school entry. Literature Becker, D. R., Miao, A., Duncan, R., & McClelland, M. (2014). Behavioral self regulation and executive function both predict visuomotor skills and early academic achievement. Early Childhood Research Quarterly , 29 , 411-424. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2014.04.014 Bierman, K. L., Nix, R. L., Greenberg, M. T., Blair, C., & Domitrovich, C. E. (2008). Executive functions and school readiness intervention: Impact, moderation, and mediation in the Head Start REDI program. Development and Psychopathology , 20 , 821-843. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579408000394 Fergusson, D. M., Boden, J. M., & Horwood, L. J. (2013). Childhood Self Control and Adult Outcomes: Results From a 30 Year Longitudinal Study. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry , 52 (7), 709-717.e1. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2013.04.008 Goodman, R. (1997). The Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire: A research note. Child Psychology & Psychiatry & Allied Disciplines, 38(5), 581–586. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.1997.tb01545.x McClelland, M. M., Cameron, C. E., Duncan, R., Bowles, R. P., Acock, A. C., Miao, A., & Pratt, M. E. (2014). Predictors of early growth in academic achievement: The head toes knees shoulders task. Frontiers in Psychology , 5. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00599 Miyake, A., Friedman, N. P., Emerson, M. J., Witzki, A. H., Howerter, A., & Wager, T. D. 2000). The unity and diversity of executive functions and their contributions to com plex „Frontal Lobe tasks: A latent variable a nalysis. Cognitive Psychology , 41 (1). 49-100. https://doi.org/10.1006/cogp.1999.0734 Moffitt, T. E., Arseneault, L., Belsky, D., Dickson, N., Hancox, R. J., Harrington, H. L., Houts, R., Poulton, R., Roberts, B. W., Ross, S., Sears, M. R., Thomson, W. M., & Caspi, A. (2011). A gradient of childhood self control predicts health, wealth, and public safety. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America , 108 (7), 2693-2698. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1010076108 Ponitz, C. E. C., McClelland, M. M., Jewkes, A. M., Connor, C. M., Farris, C. L., & Morrison, Ponitz, C. E. C., McClelland, M. M., Jewkes, A. M., Connor, C. M., Farris, C. L., & Morrison, F. J. (2008). F. J. (2008). Touch your toes! Developing a direct measure of behavioral regulationTouch your toes! Developing a direct measure of behavioral regulation in early childhood. in early childhood. Early Early Childhood Research QuarterlyChildhood Research Quarterly, , 23(2), 141(2), 141-158. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2007.01.004https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2007.01.004 Roebers, C. M. (2017). Executive Function and Metacognition: Towards a Unifying Framework of , C. M. (2017). Executive Function and Metacognition: Towards a Unifying Framework of Cognitive SelfCognitive Self--Regulation. Regulation. Developmental review, 45, 31–51. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2017.04.001 Ulitzka, B., Daseking, M., & Kerner auch Koerner, J. (2022). Diagnostik der Selbstregulation im Kita-Alter. Frühe Bildung. https://doi.org/10.1026/0012-1924/a000314 Ulitzka, B., Schmidt, H., Daseking, M., Karbach, J., Gawrilow, C., & Kerner auch Koerner, J. (2023). EF Touch–Testbatterie zur Erfassung der exekutiven Funktionen bei 3-bis 5-Jährigen. DiagnosticaDiagnostica. . https://doi.org/10.1026/0012https://doi.org/10.1026/0012-1924/a0003141924/a000314 Wechsler, D. (2018). Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence - Fourth Edition Fourth Edition (WPPSI(WPPSI-IV). Dt. Bearbeitung F. Petermann & M. Daseking. Frankfurt a. M.: Pearson Willoughby, M. & Blair, C. (2015). Longitudinal measurement of executive function in preschoolers. In function in preschoolers. In J. A. Griffin, P. McCardle &J. A. Griffin, P. McCardle & L. S. Freund (Eds.), L. S. Freund (Eds.), Executive function in preschool age children:Executive function in preschool age children: IIntegrating measurement, neurodevelopmentntegrating measurement, neurodevelopment and translationaland translational research research (pp. 91 (pp. 91-113). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/14797-005 Zelazo, P. D., Forston, J. L., Masten, A. S., & Carlson, S. M. (2018). Mindfulness Plus Reflection Training: Effects on Executive Function in Early Childhood. Training: Effects on Executive Function in Early Childhood. Frontiers in Psychology, 9. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00208

Self-regulation competences are considered an essential prerequisite for successful school entry and are seen as a strong predictor for later development such as empathy. In the German-speaking countries, there is currently a lack of instruments for assessing self-regulation. Reliable tasks would give children the opportunity to receive adequate support simplify their developmental steps. This dissertation addresses this gap by reviewing available instruments for preschool-age self-regulation assessment and evaluating their suitability for diagnostic purposes. The first publication reviewed therefore instruments available in German-speaking countries, identifying 12 questionnaires, three observation instruments and 26 performance tests. These results indicate the availability of reliable instruments for assessing facets of self-regulation. Simultaneously, the review showed, that test batteries are lacking. To date, no performance tests or observation instruments offer a differentiated assessment of self-regulation, and there are no standardized data for assessing the emotional facet of self-regulation using Delay of Gratification tasks. Given the first publication highlighted the absence of test batteries, the second publication analysed the quality criteria of a test battery (EF Touch) translated into German, using an initial sample of N = 90 children. All tasks demonstrated acceptable to very good internal consistencies (α = .51-.93), with most showing significant intercorrelations (r = .39-.51). A significant correlation (r = -.43) was found with the parents' assessment of executive function (BRIEF-P). Older children outperformed younger children in all tasks, almost no gender effects were found. These results can be seen as a first step towards demonstrating the usefulness of assessing self-regulation with a test battery for the German-speaking world. As there is also a lack of standardisation for tasks assessing the emotional facet of self-regulation, the third publication examined delay of gratification tasks for their usability as a diagnostic instrument. Delay of gratification tasks were assessed (N = 1498; 51% girls) at the ages of 3 and 5, as well as the children's psychopathology (ADHD and conduct problems) using parts of the SDQ at the ages of 5 and 6. Delay at age 3 was associated with ADHD at age 5 (OR = 1.84) and conduct issues at age 6 (OR = 2.61). The results demonstrated high specificity (77-78%) and low sensitivity (27-42%), accurately identifying children below the SDQ cut-off, but making it unsuitable for screening children at risk. The research in this dissertation has taken a first step in answering the question of what instruments are already available to assess self-regulation in preschool children, and has examined the suitability of two instruments. It has been shown that questionnaires are available to assess children's self-regulation, which enables the examination of suspected risks of low self-regulation, which in turn allows to verify the risk of psychopathology. An initial evaluation of a test battery to assess executive functions has been undertaken. In order to provide a nuanced risk assessment and assessment of self-regulation, it is recommended that a combination of reliable instruments be used, covering different components of self-regulation with various subscales. In light of the findings presented in the dissertation, the use of delay of gratification tasks as a diagnostic tool is not currently recommended.

Kindergartenkinder mit einer guten Selbstregulation verfügen auch über gute individuelle Voraussetzungen für die Schulbereitschaft und eine bessere psychische Gesundheit. Bislang fehlt jedoch im deutschsprachigen Raum eine Testbatterie zur Messung der Selbstregulation für Kinder im Kindergartenalter. Ziel dieser Studie ist es daher, eine erste Überprüfung der neu entwickelten Testbatterie (SelKi) vorzustellen. Die Testbatterie enthält je drei Aufgaben zur Messung der Inhibition und des Arbeitsgedächtnisses und zwei Aufgaben zu Messung der Flexibilität (Shifting). In einer ersten Konstruktionsstichprobe (N = 42; 30 Mädchen; 12 Jungen; 3-6 Jahre; M-Alter = 4.34 Jahre, SD = 0.91) weisen alle Aufgaben akzeptable bis sehr gute interne Konsistenzen auf (α = .74-.98). Sechs der Aufgaben korrelieren jeweils miteinander (r = .34*–.79**), während eine Aufgabe zur Inhibition und eine Aufgabe zur Flexibilität zwar positiv, aber nicht immer signifikant mit den anderen zusammenhängen. Die Leistung in allen Aufgaben korreliert mit dem Alter (r = .38*–.74**) und es gibt nur in einer Aufgabe Geschlechtsunterschiede. Es zeigen sich keine Zusammenhänge mit der Elterneinschätzung der Inhibitions- und Arbeitsgedächtnisdefizite im BRIEF-P (Daseking & Petermann, 2013) oder den ADHS-Symptomen im SDQ (Goodman, 1997). Die vorläufigen Ergebnisse weisen darauf hin, dass die SelKi-Testbatterie zur Messung der exekutiven Funktionen im Kindergartenalter geeignet seien könnte, jedoch eine größere Stichprobe notwendig ist, die aktuell erhoben wird und in die Analysen einfließen soll. Zusätzlich sollen auch die Aufgaben zur Messung des Belohnungsaufschubs ausgewertet werden, um auch diesen Aspekt der Selbstregulation erfassen zu können.

Zusammenfassung: Vorschulkinder mit guten exekutiven Funktionen (EF) haben auch gute individuelle Voraussetzungen für die Schulbereitschaft und den Schulerfolg. Bislang fehlt jedoch im deutschsprachigen Raum eine Testbatterie für Kinder im Vorschulalter. Ziel der Arbeit war es daher, die Testbatterie EF Touch auf ihre Nutzbarkeit für den deutschen Sprachraum zu überprüfen. Die EF Touch wurde in einer Konstruktionsstichprobe von N = 90 Kindern (50 Mädchen; M-Alter = 3.39 Jahre, SD = 0.78) erprobt. Alle Aufgaben wiesen akzeptable bis sehr gute interne Konsistenzen auf (α = .51 – .93), die meisten korrelierten signifikant miteinander (r = .39 – .51). Die zugrundeliegende Struktur der EF war erwartungsgemäß einfaktoriell. Zusätzlich zeigte sich ein signifikanter Zusammenhang (r = -.43) mit der Elterneinschätzung der EF im Fragebogen BRIEF-P. Es ergaben sich bei allen Aufgaben bessere Ergebnisse bei älteren Kindern. Nachdem die Nutzbarkeit der Testbatterie im deutschen Sprachraum gezeigt werden konnte, wird im nächsten Schritt eine repräsentative Normstichprobe erhoben.

Zusammenfassung. Selbstregulation und die damit verbundenen Kompetenzen gelten als wesentliche Voraussetzung für einen erfolgreichen Schuleintritt. Im deutschen Sprachraum fehlt es bisher an Instrumenten zur Erfassung der Selbstregulation im Vorschulalter, die bei der Entwicklungsdiagnostik im Kindergarten oder bei der Einschulungsuntersuchung zum Einsatz kommen könnten. Es wird daher ein Überblick über Verfahren gegeben, (1) die auf Deutsch vorhanden sind und für die es (2) in einem Altersbereich zwischen drei und sechs Jahren Normen oder Cut-Off-Werte gibt. Identifiziert werden konnten zwölf Fragebögen, drei Beobachtungsverfahren und 26 Leistungstest, die Facetten der Selbstregulation erfassen. Die Testgütekriterien dieser Verfahren wurden geprüft. Es zeigt sich, dass einige Subtest oder -skalen aus etablierten Verfahren zur Schätzung der Selbstregulation herangezogen werden können, jedoch differenzierte Fragebögen oder gar Testbatterien zur objektiven, zuverlässigen und validen Erfassung der Selbstregulation fehlen.

Executive functions (EF) are one important part of self-regulation (SR) in preschool and play an important role in the cognitive, academic and health development of children. Even though there are many experimental tasks measuring EF, a standardized test battery for German pre-schoolers is lacking. The current study aims to standardize a computerized test battery (EF Touch), that has been developed and standardized in the US, for the use in German children. EF Touch includes eight tasks designed to assess three core components of EF (working memory, inhibition, cognitive flexibility) at the age of 3-6 years. Cronbach`s alpha in our sample of 90 children (50 girls, age: M = 3.39; SD = .78) ranged between α = .51-.93. The inter-correlations showed moderate to strong relations between almost all tasks (r = .16 -.63). A one factor model fitted the EF data best. Older children outperformed younger ones on five of the tasks (p <.02), girls performed better than boys on the cognitive flexible and one inhibition task (p <.02). An interaction of age and gender was found on one working memory (p = .05) and one inhibition task (p <.05). There were significant correlations between performance on the EF-Touch inhibition tasks and the parent-rated EF questionnaire BRIEF-P (total scales: r = -.43). Data collection is ongoing and results will be updated accordingly, the collection of a representative norm sample already started. Results will be discussed in line with current theories of self-regulation in preschool.